Shared meals often expresses the universal Near Eastern value of hospitality (Gen 18:1–8; Heb 13:2). Meals can affirm kinship, friendship, and goodwill (Gen 31:33–54), acknowledge one’s status (1 Kgs 17:8–16; 2 Kgs 4:8–11), or recognize a peaceful disposition and commitment to nonaggression (Gen 26:26–33; Josh 9:14–15). Depending on the context and occasion, meal fellowship can convey nonverbal messages relating to interpersonal relationships.
Ancient Israelite meals can be divided into ordinary, festive, and sacred. In the East, all aspects of life are perceived as spiritual occasions; when it comes to meals, the kitchen table and the altar are inseparable (Rosenblum, Food and Identity, 52). The members of the Qumran community, who wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls, saw themselves and their meals as a living human sanctuary (Magness, Stone and Dung, 79). For most Jews, meals connected to sacrificial worship were considered especially sacred, and can be seen as a separate category.
Timing, Setting, and Contents of Meals
Ancient Israelites and their neighbors ate ordinary meals twice a day: one during the hottest part of the day, and one at the very conclusion of the day (Jer 52:33–34; Josephus, Antiquities XIV.15.11; VI.4.1; MacDonald, What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? 91–92). The morning meals were usually simple and evening meals more elaborate (Luke 9:12; 24:29–30; Josephus, Antiquities VI. 4.1). On the Sabbath it was customary to eat three meals instead of two (b. Shabbat 10; Josephus, Life 54). The timing and frequency of meals could also be influenced by status and occupation (b. Sanhedrin 10a).
Ordinary meals consisted of bread made from wheat and barley; parched grain; olive oil and olives; and stews from lentils, beans, and vegetables. Israelites ate fish, honey, fruits of all kinds, grapes, dates and figs, raisins, and dairy products like curds and cheeses (MacDonald, What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? 17, 30–40). The meat of clean animals (Lev 11:3–8, Deut 14:4–8) was consumed rarely, usually as a part of sacred meals and during the most festive occasions (King and Stager, Life in Biblical Israel, 68; MacDonald, What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? 92). Israelites also occasionally ate wild game and fowl (Gen 27:3–4; Exod 16:13).
Some Jews ate only after the morning prayers (Acts 2:15). It was customary to recite short prayers just before meals (1 Sam 9:13, Matt 14:19; 15:36; 26:26; Luke 9:16; John 6:11; War Scroll 2; m. Berakhot 6:5; Josephus, Antiquities II.12.12; Apology of Aristides 15). Jews also expressed thanksgiving through prayers following the meals (Deut 8:10; Josephus, Jewish War II. 8.5; b. Berakhot 35a). Some Jews celebrated special occasions with symposium- or triclinium-style banquets lasting late into the night, while Qumran Jews preferred simplicity, eating in complete silence (Josephus, Life 44; Jewish War II. 8.5; War Scroll 2.129–33).
Dining areas were typically shaded from the sun, sometimes indoors, at other times on the roofs (1 Sam 9:26) and on porches attached to the exterior of the house. Because of food preparation, meals could be lengthy. Seating at meals was arranged by status (Matt 23:6; Carter, Roman Empire, 110–12; Smith, 10), with places of honor to the right and to the left of the host (1 Sam 9:22–24; Matt 20:21–23). Meals were eaten sitting (Gen 37:25; Exod 32:6; 1 Sam 20:24) or reclining (Matt 26:6–7; Luke 7:36–37; Josephus, Antiquities, 15:9. 3; Smith, From Symposium to Eucharist, 10). Reclining was the custom of the wealthy and usually practiced by most at festive meals (Amos 6:4; 1 Esdras 4:10, Tobit 2:1). While reclining, one’s head rested close to the chest of the adjacent person dining, explaining the biblical phraseology of “being in one’s bosom” (John 13:23, Luke 16:22; Matt 8:11).
Meals and Hygiene
Because bread was an indispensable staple and a substantial part of most meals, it often represented the meal itself (e.g., Gen 37:25; Exod 2:20; 1 Sam 28:22–25; Matt 6:11; Rosenblum, Food and Identity, 17–18). Bread was not cut, but typically broken with hands. This is reflected by the common expression “to break bread” (Luke 24:35; Acts 2:42, 46). Dishes were usually shared among all guests (b. Berakhot 47a; b. Gittin 59b). Since eating was done with hands, washing hands before meals was customary (Luke 11:38; m. Yadayim 4:2). For some Jews, washing hands and utensils involved in meals was associated with rules of ritual purity (Mark 7:2–4; Matt 15:2, 20; b. Berakhot 53b; m. Kelim 2:1). Washing feet was another custom practiced especially prior to reclining at meals (Gen 24:32; John 13:5; 1 Tim 5:10). Qumran Jews bathed their entire bodies prior to meals (Magness, Stone and Dung, 20). Ancient mealtime could also be preceded by other hygiene practices, such as the use of oil or perfume (Psa 23:5; Luke 7:44–46).
Table Restrictions
Although there are many biblical examples of Jews sharing meals with non-Jews and accepting food from non-Jews in earlier times (Gen 14:18; 26:30; Exod 18:12; Deut 2:28, 23:4–7; 2 Kings 4:8; 25:29–30), the social and the spiritual meanings of meals restricted such interaction during the Second Temple Period (Freidenreich, Foreigners, 57–58). The possibility of defilement and association with food involved in idol worship was assumed (Acts 10:28; 11:3; Joseph and Aseneth 7:1; m. Hullin 2:8) and tensions over such table fellowship surfaced among early Jewish followers of Jesus (Acts 15:29; Gal 2:12). Besides the Jewish-Gentile tensions during the Second Temple Period, table fellowship was often restricted even between the members of various Jewish groups (Community Rule 1QS 6:16–21, Josephus, Jewish War 2.139; Magness, Stone and Dung, 83).
Passover and the Eucharist/Lord’s Supper
Most scholars believe that the early Christian practice of the Eucharist (εὐχαριστία, eucharistia) or the Lord’s Supper (κυριακὸν δεῖπνον, kyriakon deipnon; 1 Cor 11:23–25) was established on the foundation of the Jewish Passover meal described as the “Last Supper” in the Synoptic Gospels (Mark 14:22–25; Matt 26:26–29; Luke 22:14–20). The Jewish Passover was celebrated as a memorial meal (זִכָּרוֹן, zikkaron) commemorating a central event that established a common identity (Exod 12:14). The remembrance of Christ’s sacrifice was theologically developed within this existing paradigm. Different parts of the traditional Passover meal in the first century AD symbolized and recalled stages of the Exodus narrative (b. Pesahim 115b–17b). Some features were understood in an eschatological light (Smith, From Symposium to Eucharist, 169–70). Following this pattern, Jesus assigned the symbolism of His death to bread and wine. Ancient Passover meals included the meat of the sacrifice, which was restricted. Those who were not circumcised and did not share Israel’s covenant identity were not allowed to partake (Exod 12:48). Early Christians, in remembering the Lord, limited the Eucharist only to those who were baptized (Didache 9:5).
Noting the absence of an obvious Passover motif in John and other evidence, some scholars have proposed the connection of eucharistic practice not to Passover, but to other types of first-century meals (Smith, From Symposium to Eucharist, 174; LaVerdiere, Eucharist, 193; Freidenreich, Foreigners, 57–58). Although bread and a cup of wine are presently and historically the main features of the remembrance ritual, originally the practice also included full-course meals (Smith, From Symposium to Eucharist, 174; LaVerdiere, Eucharist/, 193). Most meals shared by early Christians in the New Testament, however, did not necessarily include the Eucharist, but were regular fellowship meals.
Selected Resources for Further Study
Carter, Warren. The Roman Empire and the New Testament: An Essential Guide. Nashville: Abingdon, 2010.
Freidenreich, David M. Foreigners and Their Food: Constructing Otherness in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic Law. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011.
Gray, Tim. From Jewish Passover to Christian Eucharist: The Todah Sacrifice as Backdrop for the Last Supper. Steubenville, Ohio: Emmaus Road, 2006.
King, Philip J., and Lawrence E. Stager. Life in Biblical Israel. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001.
LaVerdiere, Eugene. The Eucharist in the New Testament and the Early Church. Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 1996.
MacDonald, Nathan. What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat?: Diet in Biblical Times. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008.
Magness, Jodi. Stone and Dung, Oil and Spit: Jewish Daily Life in the Time of Jesus. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2011.
Rosenblum, Jordan. Food and Identity in Early Rabbinic Judaism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
Smith, Dennis Edwin, From Symposium to Eucharist: The Banquet in the Early Christian World. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2003.
AUTHOR
PETER SHIROKOV
CITED
Shirokov, P. (2016). Meal Customs. In J. D. Barry, D. Bomar, D. R. Brown, R. Klippenstein, D. Mangum, C. Sinclair Wolcott, L. Wentz, E. Ritzema, & W. Widder (Eds.), The Lexham Bible Dictionary. Lexham Press.
Meal Customs
Overview
Shared meals often expresses the universal Near Eastern value of hospitality (Gen 18:1–8; Heb 13:2). Meals can affirm kinship, friendship, and goodwill (Gen 31:33–54), acknowledge one’s status (1 Kgs 17:8–16; 2 Kgs 4:8–11), or recognize a peaceful disposition and commitment to nonaggression (Gen 26:26–33; Josh 9:14–15). Depending on the context and occasion, meal fellowship can convey nonverbal messages relating to interpersonal relationships.
Ancient Israelite meals can be divided into ordinary, festive, and sacred. In the East, all aspects of life are perceived as spiritual occasions; when it comes to meals, the kitchen table and the altar are inseparable (Rosenblum, Food and Identity, 52). The members of the Qumran community, who wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls, saw themselves and their meals as a living human sanctuary (Magness, Stone and Dung, 79). For most Jews, meals connected to sacrificial worship were considered especially sacred, and can be seen as a separate category.
Timing, Setting, and Contents of Meals
Ancient Israelites and their neighbors ate ordinary meals twice a day: one during the hottest part of the day, and one at the very conclusion of the day (Jer 52:33–34; Josephus, Antiquities XIV.15.11; VI.4.1; MacDonald, What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? 91–92). The morning meals were usually simple and evening meals more elaborate (Luke 9:12; 24:29–30; Josephus, Antiquities VI. 4.1). On the Sabbath it was customary to eat three meals instead of two (b. Shabbat 10; Josephus, Life 54). The timing and frequency of meals could also be influenced by status and occupation (b. Sanhedrin 10a).
Ordinary meals consisted of bread made from wheat and barley; parched grain; olive oil and olives; and stews from lentils, beans, and vegetables. Israelites ate fish, honey, fruits of all kinds, grapes, dates and figs, raisins, and dairy products like curds and cheeses (MacDonald, What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? 17, 30–40). The meat of clean animals (Lev 11:3–8, Deut 14:4–8) was consumed rarely, usually as a part of sacred meals and during the most festive occasions (King and Stager, Life in Biblical Israel, 68; MacDonald, What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? 92). Israelites also occasionally ate wild game and fowl (Gen 27:3–4; Exod 16:13).
Some Jews ate only after the morning prayers (Acts 2:15). It was customary to recite short prayers just before meals (1 Sam 9:13, Matt 14:19; 15:36; 26:26; Luke 9:16; John 6:11; War Scroll 2; m. Berakhot 6:5; Josephus, Antiquities II.12.12; Apology of Aristides 15). Jews also expressed thanksgiving through prayers following the meals (Deut 8:10; Josephus, Jewish War II. 8.5; b. Berakhot 35a). Some Jews celebrated special occasions with symposium- or triclinium-style banquets lasting late into the night, while Qumran Jews preferred simplicity, eating in complete silence (Josephus, Life 44; Jewish War II. 8.5; War Scroll 2.129–33).
Dining areas were typically shaded from the sun, sometimes indoors, at other times on the roofs (1 Sam 9:26) and on porches attached to the exterior of the house. Because of food preparation, meals could be lengthy. Seating at meals was arranged by status (Matt 23:6; Carter, Roman Empire, 110–12; Smith, 10), with places of honor to the right and to the left of the host (1 Sam 9:22–24; Matt 20:21–23). Meals were eaten sitting (Gen 37:25; Exod 32:6; 1 Sam 20:24) or reclining (Matt 26:6–7; Luke 7:36–37; Josephus, Antiquities, 15:9. 3; Smith, From Symposium to Eucharist, 10). Reclining was the custom of the wealthy and usually practiced by most at festive meals (Amos 6:4; 1 Esdras 4:10, Tobit 2:1). While reclining, one’s head rested close to the chest of the adjacent person dining, explaining the biblical phraseology of “being in one’s bosom” (John 13:23, Luke 16:22; Matt 8:11).
Meals and Hygiene
Because bread was an indispensable staple and a substantial part of most meals, it often represented the meal itself (e.g., Gen 37:25; Exod 2:20; 1 Sam 28:22–25; Matt 6:11; Rosenblum, Food and Identity, 17–18). Bread was not cut, but typically broken with hands. This is reflected by the common expression “to break bread” (Luke 24:35; Acts 2:42, 46). Dishes were usually shared among all guests (b. Berakhot 47a; b. Gittin 59b). Since eating was done with hands, washing hands before meals was customary (Luke 11:38; m. Yadayim 4:2). For some Jews, washing hands and utensils involved in meals was associated with rules of ritual purity (Mark 7:2–4; Matt 15:2, 20; b. Berakhot 53b; m. Kelim 2:1). Washing feet was another custom practiced especially prior to reclining at meals (Gen 24:32; John 13:5; 1 Tim 5:10). Qumran Jews bathed their entire bodies prior to meals (Magness, Stone and Dung, 20). Ancient mealtime could also be preceded by other hygiene practices, such as the use of oil or perfume (Psa 23:5; Luke 7:44–46).
Table Restrictions
Although there are many biblical examples of Jews sharing meals with non-Jews and accepting food from non-Jews in earlier times (Gen 14:18; 26:30; Exod 18:12; Deut 2:28, 23:4–7; 2 Kings 4:8; 25:29–30), the social and the spiritual meanings of meals restricted such interaction during the Second Temple Period (Freidenreich, Foreigners, 57–58). The possibility of defilement and association with food involved in idol worship was assumed (Acts 10:28; 11:3; Joseph and Aseneth 7:1; m. Hullin 2:8) and tensions over such table fellowship surfaced among early Jewish followers of Jesus (Acts 15:29; Gal 2:12). Besides the Jewish-Gentile tensions during the Second Temple Period, table fellowship was often restricted even between the members of various Jewish groups (Community Rule 1QS 6:16–21, Josephus, Jewish War 2.139; Magness, Stone and Dung, 83).
Passover and the Eucharist/Lord’s Supper
Most scholars believe that the early Christian practice of the Eucharist (εὐχαριστία, eucharistia) or the Lord’s Supper (κυριακὸν δεῖπνον, kyriakon deipnon; 1 Cor 11:23–25) was established on the foundation of the Jewish Passover meal described as the “Last Supper” in the Synoptic Gospels (Mark 14:22–25; Matt 26:26–29; Luke 22:14–20). The Jewish Passover was celebrated as a memorial meal (זִכָּרוֹן, zikkaron) commemorating a central event that established a common identity (Exod 12:14). The remembrance of Christ’s sacrifice was theologically developed within this existing paradigm. Different parts of the traditional Passover meal in the first century AD symbolized and recalled stages of the Exodus narrative (b. Pesahim 115b–17b). Some features were understood in an eschatological light (Smith, From Symposium to Eucharist, 169–70). Following this pattern, Jesus assigned the symbolism of His death to bread and wine. Ancient Passover meals included the meat of the sacrifice, which was restricted. Those who were not circumcised and did not share Israel’s covenant identity were not allowed to partake (Exod 12:48). Early Christians, in remembering the Lord, limited the Eucharist only to those who were baptized (Didache 9:5).
Noting the absence of an obvious Passover motif in John and other evidence, some scholars have proposed the connection of eucharistic practice not to Passover, but to other types of first-century meals (Smith, From Symposium to Eucharist, 174; LaVerdiere, Eucharist, 193; Freidenreich, Foreigners, 57–58). Although bread and a cup of wine are presently and historically the main features of the remembrance ritual, originally the practice also included full-course meals (Smith, From Symposium to Eucharist, 174; LaVerdiere, Eucharist/, 193). Most meals shared by early Christians in the New Testament, however, did not necessarily include the Eucharist, but were regular fellowship meals.
Selected Resources for Further Study
AUTHOR
PETER SHIROKOV
CITED
Shirokov, P. (2016). Meal Customs. In J. D. Barry, D. Bomar, D. R. Brown, R. Klippenstein, D. Mangum, C. Sinclair Wolcott, L. Wentz, E. Ritzema, & W. Widder (Eds.), The Lexham Bible Dictionary. Lexham Press.