This book provides an overview of the theological views on takfīr in classical and medieval Islamic thought, explores the Islamic context of the concept, and considers the following questions: In what context does the term appear in the Qur’ān and ḥadīths (the sayings of the Prophet Muḥammad)? In what circumstances did Muslim theologians engage in takfīr, and what were the social, religious, theological, and political implications on the society? How did the meaning of takfīr evolve in classical and later Islamic theology, and what justifications did prominent medieval Muslim theologians and jurists provide for declaring other Muslims kuffār? This book attempts to demonstrate how takfīr has evolved throughout the centuries from being a term used to condemn (and warn against) unacceptable actions to a term used on individuals and communities to strip them of their belief, dignity, and linkage to the Divine (i.e., declaring them unbelievers). This book also attempts to shed the light on…

Multireligious Reflections on Friendship: Becoming Ourselves in Community presents a multi-religious discussion of spiritual and ethical formation through friendship. Contributors discuss the positive effects of friendship and some of the culturally diverse ways that friendships develop. Friends help us co-exist in diverse societies, live sustainably in our ecosystems, heal from trauma, develop inner virtues, engage wisely in social action, and connect with the divine. While friendship is a core human value, cultural traditions have used different tools to build friendships. For example, Indigenous communities emphasize reciprocity on the land; Jewish traditions encourage respect for study partners; Buddhist teachers suggest discernment in befriending; Christian texts speak of bringing God’s love into community. The fifteen scholars contributing to this book draw on the teachings of six different global traditions: Indigenous, Hindu, Jewish, Buddhist, Islamic, and Christian. Each…